Short Notes For Class 12, Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones

 

 

Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones – The Harappan Civilisation

1. Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) flourished around 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
One of the earliest urban civilizations, contemporary to Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Named after Harappa, the first site discovered in 1921 (Punjab, Pakistan).

2. Sources of Information

Archaeological remains: buildings, pottery, seals, tools, ornaments, etc.
No deciphered written records; the script is yet undeciphered.
Inferences are made based on material remains.

3. Significant Harappan Sites

Harappa: First site discovered; granaries, citadel.
Mohenjo-Daro: Located in Sindh; known for Great Bath, granary.
Dholavira (Gujarat): Water management, inscriptions on stone.
Lothal (Gujarat): Dockyard, bead-making factory.
Kalibangan (Rajasthan): Ploughed field evidence.

4. Town Planning

Cities had a grid pattern, roads intersected at right angles.
Divided into:
Citadel (upper part): for elites, public buildings.
Lower Town: for common people.
Advanced drainage system: covered drains, soak pits.
Houses made of baked bricks, often with wells, bathrooms, and toilets.

5. Agriculture and Animal Domestication

Crops: wheat, barley, pulses, mustard, cotton.
Use of plough in Kalibangan; irrigation in Dholavira.
Domesticated animals: cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat; some wild animals also present.

6. Craft Production

Specialized crafts: bead-making, pottery, shell carving, metal work.
Use of materials: semi-precious stones, terracotta, copper, bronze, gold.
Centers: Chanhudaro (bead-making), Lothal (shell and metal work).
Use of tools and furnaces.

7. Trade and Commerce

Trade in raw materials (copper, tin, stones), finished goods (beads, seals).
Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia (Meluhha).
Use of weights and measures (binary system).
Seals: used for trade, identification, and possibly administrative control.

8. Social Structure

Possible social differentiation based on housing and burial styles.
Standardization in architecture and weights suggests a central authority.
Elites possibly controlled trade and resources.

9. Religion and Beliefs

No conclusive temples; seals depict animals, nature worship.
Figurines of Mother Goddess and Pashupati-like figure (proto-Shiva).
Worship of pipal tree, humped bull, unicorn motif.
Burial practices: extended inhumation, goods buried with dead.

10. Harappan Script

Script is pictographic, around 375–400 signs.
Found on seals, tablets, pottery.
Still undeciphered, used for short inscriptions.

11. Decline of Civilization

Around 1900 BCE, major cities declined.
Possible causes:
Environmental change: drying of rivers (like Ghaggar-Hakra).
Floods, deforestation, overuse of resources.
Shift in trade and migration.
Invasion theories are outdated and less accepted now.

12. Discovery and Excavation

First major excavation: Harappa (1921 by Daya Ram Sahni), Mohenjo-Daro (1922 by R.D. Banerji).

Later sites discovered post-1947 (India and Pakistan).


Techniques: stratigraphy, carbon dating, pottery analysis.

Challenges in interpretation due to lack of written records